Fractions In The Mathematics Curriculum Education Essay

Fractions In The Mathematics Curriculum Education Essay This chapter reviews the relevant literature related to the study. It will explore the overview of the topic and theories that are related and relevant to the study. The study can be divided into two main themes-, the issue and the intervention. The issue here refers to learning problems associated with Fraction which includes the place of the subtopic in the Brunei Mathematics Curriculum, review of previous research on students difficulty and underlying theories related to the topic. The intervention describes how the instruction will be carried out, what are the relevant instructional type of intervention used, the theory behind the choice, including previous research on the choice of intervention. These are then referred to the Brunei SPN-21 curriculum framework. 2.1 Issue: Fractions 2.1.1 Fractions in the Mathematics Curriculum Fractions are first introduced to pupils in Year 2 in Brunei mathematics curriculum. The curriculum keeps revisiting the topic of fractions at different depth up to secondary education. The syllabus content for O Level Mathematics outlined the expected outcome in this topic. Students are expected to be able to use the language and notation of simple vulgar and decimal fractions and percentages in appropriate contexts, recognize equivalence and perform calculations by suitable methods, with and without a calculating aid in involving fractional operations (Cie,2012). The Curriculum Development Department (CDD), Ministry of Education, Brunei Darussalam has outlined the learning outcomes that should be attained by students at each level as shown in Table 1. Table 1: Placement of Fraction in the Brunei Syllabus Year Learning Outcomes 2 Understand the ideas of fraction as a part of a whole Use fraction chart to name fractions with denominators up to 10. Name simple fractions based on fraction diagrams. Shade simple fractions on given diagrams. Demonstrate that when all fractional parts of a whole are included the result equals one whole. Read and write for example; = 1 , = 1 , = 1 3 Use fraction chart and number line to recognize and name fractions with denominators greater than 10. Shade or colour fractions with denominators greater than 10. State the numerator and the denominator of a given fraction. Compare like fractions. Order like fractions in order of size. Compare unit fractions .(S) Arrange unit fractions in order of size. .(S) Use diagrams or fraction chart to recognise equivalent fractions. (S) Compare unlike fractions. (C) Arrange unlike fractions in order of size. (C) Add and subtract like fractions within one whole. 4 Determine equivalent fractions of a given fraction with denominator à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ 10 Reduce a given fraction to its simplest form Compare and order fractions with denominators Convert improper fractions into mixed numbers vice versa (S) Addition and subtraction of like fractions with results >1 Add and subtract related fractions(C) Solve word problems. (SC) 5 Add and subtract related fractions Add and subtract unlike fractions Multiply fractions (include mixed numbers) by a 1-digit whole number Divide fractions (include mixed numbers) by a 1-digit whole number (C) Interpret fraction as division Solve word problems (M, SC) 6 Apply concept of fraction in estimating answers in computations. (e.g. less than 2; is slightly more than 52, etc.) (C) Understand fraction as part of a set Find a fraction of a set Divide fractions (including mixed numbers) by a whole number (C) Multiply a fraction by another fraction (S) Divide a fraction by another fraction (S) Solve word problems (M, SC) 7 Perform operations on fractions without / with the use of the calculator. Apply fraction as part of a set and as a division of two numbers in various contexts. Recognise place values of digits in a given decimal. Convert between fractions and decimals. Compare fractions and/or decimals using words and symbols: , à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤, à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥ and = (CDD documents, 2010) After Year 7, fraction is incorporated into other topics such as algebra, everyday mathematics and measurements. The content of the topic is designed by using Bruners spiral curriculum. Jerome Bruner, a renowned psychology in the constructivist theory, believed that any subject could be taught at any stage of development in a way that fit the childs cognitive abilities. Spiral curriculum refers to the idea of revisiting basic ideas over and over, building upon them and elaborating to the level of full understanding and mastery. As shown in Table 1, the topic is revisited from Year 2 to Year 7 in different depth. 2.1.2 Students difficulty in learning and understanding Fraction It is well documented that fractions are among the most complex mathematical concepts that children encounter in their years in primary education (Newstead Murray, 1998, Bezuk, Cramer Streetfland, 1991). Hartung (1958) acknowledged the complexity of the fraction concept that cannot be grasped all at once. He also cited that knowledge of fractions must be acquired through a long process of sequential development. This is probably one of the reason why in our curriculum framework, the topic is being taught in stages from as early as when the children are in Year 2, and is developed as they grow older to a more complex form. Experts have outlined a number of reasons to explain students difficulty with fractions. Some researchers had point out the causes for the low performance in this topic (e.g Kerslake, 1986,Hart, 1988, Domoney, 2002, Hannula, 2003). One of the predominant factors contributing to the complexities is the fact that fractions comprise a multifaceted notion encompassing five interrelated sub-constructs which are part-whole, ratio, operator, quotient, and measure (Brousseau, Brousseau Warfield, 2004; Kieren, 1995; Lamon, 2001). It has been suggested that children should develop an integrated understanding of different sub constructs (Post, Cramer, Bejr,Lesh, Harel,1993). Other factors which contribute to the students weakness in fractions is that fractions cannot be counted and there are infinite numbers of fractions between any two fractions, as reported by Robert Siegler (2010). Students tend to memorize formulas or algorithms instead of understanding them. Students also have a difficulty in incorporating concept into practice, example is that students do not know why addition and subtraction require a common denominator. Although being exposed to the computing of fractions from primary school, students in secondary school still make significant error in the addition and subtraction of fractions (Wan, 2002). Studies have also established that students difficulties are mainly due to lack of conceptual understanding of fraction itself. Students had good procedural understanding of fractions as this had been the method taught to them since primary school. (Moss Case, 1999). The development of conceptual understanding involves seeing the connections between concepts and procedures, and being able to apply mathematical principles in a variety of context.(BOS NSW, 2002). A number of recent research studies in Brunei Darussalam have confirmed that pupils in schools are drilled into application of rules and formulas at the expense of mathematical understanding (Veloo and Lopez-Real, 1994; Wong and Veloo 1996; Clements, 2002; Lim, 2000; Khoo 2001; Norjum Veloo, (2003); Veloo and Ali Hamdani, 2005). This is further supported by a report on error analysis on students performance in PMB 2008. The report revealed that students were mostly drilled to do mathematical rules without understanding (MOE, 2008). Study in Brunei on Primary 5 and Primary 6 pupils, had identified some common error patterns, namely grouping error, basic fact error, defective algorithm, incorrect operation and careless error. (Yusof Malone,2002). The study also reported that although the students achievement in the post test had improved but their performance on fraction work remained unsatisfactory particularly on basic operations. Various studies in Brunei primary schools (Clements (1999), Fatimah (1998), Jabaidah (2001), Leong, Fatimah Sainah (1998) Raimah (2001) ) also revealed that pupils in the upper primary school find fractions to be extremely difficult and most of them had no relational understanding of fraction concept. Suffolk and Clements (2003) studied students in Form 1 and Form 2 from 27 secondary schools in Brunei also found out that many students were experiencing serious difficulties with elementary fractions tasks. Another study by Zurina (2003) involving Form 4 (N-Level) students discovered that students had very poor knowledge and understanding of fractions and decimals. The major contributing factors were that teacher spent large amount of time on preparing students for high-stake examination, therefore the traditional drill and practice method was mostly employed by teachers. She further commented that teaching and assessment methods were not generating towards the desired quality of stud ents. Despite being a difficult and complex topic, fraction is one of the main topics in the Brunei Mathematics syllabus, and is being taught formally as early as in Year 2. Wu (1999), cited that fraction understanding is vital to a students transformation from computing arithmetic calculations to comprehending algebra. In Year 7, students are expected to know and understand the sub-constructs of fractions, and are able to perform operations using fractions fluently. They should have acquired the conceptual and procedural understanding of fractions. Addition and subtraction of fractions was first introduced to pupils in Brunei in Year 3 and continued in different depth to secondary education. Although students have been exposed to computing of fractions as early as in Year 3, they still make significant errors in addition and subtraction of fractions in secondary school (Wan,2002). Samsiah (2002) in her study on Primary 6 pupils in Brunei Darussalam found out that pupils don not acquire accurate procedural knowledge for carrying out fraction operations and she further recommended that teaching and learning environment need to be created which are conducive to a healing process. Common errors in addition and subtraction of fractions is the classic error of adding or subtracting the numerator and denominator. This implies that students were thinking of fractions in a disjointed rather than holistic manner. Students difficulties in fractions could be seen as a global phenomena as being discussed. Recognizing the difficulties and acknowledging the importance of fraction in mathematics education makes this study of great significance to the researcher and mathematics teachers. 2.1.3 Students confidence Concentration, Confidence, Competitive urge, Capacity for enjoyment (Arnold Palmer) Confidence is a state of being certain whether the hypothesis or prediction is correct or that a chosen course of action is the best or most effective.   According to Jones (2001), the self-confidence is the assurance that a person has in his or her own abilities. Self-confidence is also defined as the sureness of feeling that you are equal to the task at hand. This sureness is characterised by absolute belief in ability. Bandura (1986) reasoned that the most important source of information on students confidence comes from the mastery experience. The term mastery experience implies that individuals are to reflect on and evaluate their own performance. Self-confidence is extremely important in almost every aspect of our lives, yet so many people struggle to find it. Sadly, this can be a vicious circle: People who lack self-confidence can find it difficult to become successful. In order to develop confidence in Mathematics, students need to be provided with opportunity to use mathem atics in a real context. 2.2 Intervention and Remediation According to a study by Kroesbergen and Van Luit (2003), intervention is used to teach basic math skills and problem-solving strategies for students with special needs. Remediation is the effective re teaching of material not previously mastered when it was originally taught, according to a research study for the Southeastern Regional Council for Educational Improvement by Gypsy Anne Abbott and Elizabeth McEntire. A successful remediation strategy covers any prerequisite concepts or skills needed to understand the current objective. Students who did not learn the material the first time it was taught may simply need reteaching or a fresh approach, while students with problems learning may also need modifications to the lessons and assessments, more time to complete assignments or shortened assignments. In this study, the researcher is doing remediation programme adopting the Learning study strategy in two cycles. First cycle is addressed at improving students conceptual understanding of fraction, particularly looking at equivalent fraction which is the pre requisite for addition and subtraction of fraction with different denominators. The second cycle is aimed at improving students fluency in doing operation with fractions. The pre-test is administered before the intervention programme is carried out. This is to find out the students knowledge of the problem being investigated. The post-test is administered at the end of cycle 2. This is as a measure of the learning which might take place as a result of the intervention. 2.2.1 Learning Study Learning Study is a process where teachers work collaboratively to plan teaching strategies by focusing on the students needs. It builds teacher knowledge about how students develop mathematical understanding. Learning Study aims to advance student learning through building a sequence of learning experiences, reviewing the lessons and evaluating the effectiveness of the learning experiences. It is most effective when supported by an expert to offer constructive advice and support Learning study is similar to the Japanese Lesson Study (Yoshida,1999 ; Stigler Hiebert, 1999). It is aimed at improving students learning in a cyclic process of planning and revising lesson by a group of teachers. The theory of Variation (Marton, Runesson, Tsui, 1997) forms the basis of the theoretical framework of Learning Study. According to variation theory, learning is defined as a change in the way a person experiences a particular phenomenon and is associated with a change in discernment in that persons structure of awareness (Marton Booth, 1997; Marton Tsui, 2004; Marton Pang, 2006). In designing the patterns of variation and invariation, teachers are advised to use the principles of variation, as follows: The principle of contrast teacher to give contrasting example (e.g. Fraction and Whole number) The principle of separation to test one variable, change the other variable. (e.g to understand relationship of numerator to the value of fraction, vary the numerator and keep the denominator invariant) The principle of generalization to generalize a concept, different examples of the same value are given (e.g to generalize the concept of , give all kinds of examples involving say half of an apple, half of an hour etc The principle of fusion vary different dimensions simultaneously (e.g. to understand two critical aspect of numerator and denominator, vary both at the same time, systematically) The main focus of learning in the SPN-21 curriculum is the learner, with emphasis on the teaching and learning for understanding. Learning study is one of the strategies which focus on the teaching and learning for understanding. It is the aim of the Ministry of Education to provide continuous professional development in order to help teachers to improve their understanding of teaching. To support this, Learning study group of secondary school teachers had been set in Brunei to improve teaching and learning of science and mathematics. Learning Study is a process where teachers work collaboratively to plan teaching strategies by focusing on the students needs. It builds teacher knowledge about how students develop mathematical understanding. Learning Study aims to advance student learning through building a sequence of learning experiences, reviewing the lessons and evaluating the effectiveness of the learning experiences. It is most effective when supported by an expert to offer constructive advice and supporTeachers are encouraged to use different approach to their teaching for the improvement of learning in Brunei. Dato Seri Setia Awang Hj Yusoff Hj Ismail, the acting Minister of Education, in his speech at the opening of the World Association of Lessons Studies (Wals) Conference 2010 mentioned on the importance of lesson study and learning study to improve on the teachers understanding of their teaching. He further added that the challenge is to ensure that collaborative enquiry trough lesson and learning study takes root in the culture of our school (Brunei Times,2010 Dec) 2.2.2 Use of Manipulative in Mathematic I hear and I forget, I see and I remember, I do and I understand (Confucius, 551-479BC) Mathematics education today are moving towards the facilitation of students understanding and conceptualization rather than drill and practice of rote procedures (Heddens,1986). This is in line with the SPN-21 curriculum framework which also give emphasis on the teaching and learning for understanding. One of the ways to promote understanding is by using manipulative. Manipulative are physical object help to make mathematical concepts become concrete. Research in many countries supports the idea that the mathematics instruction and students mathematics understanding will be more effective if manipulative materials are used (Canny, 1984; Clements Battista, 1990; Dienes, 1960; Driscoll, 1981; Fennema, 1972; 1973; Skemp, 1987; Sugiyama, 1987; Suydam, 1984) Allowing students to use concrete objects to observe, model, and internalize abstract concepts will yield a positive effect on students achievement (Sowell,1989.,Ruzie and OConnel,2001) . Manipulative allows students to construct their own cognitive models for abstract mathematical ideas and processes. They are also engaging students and increasing both interest and enjoyment of mathematics. Long term interest in mathematics translates to increased mathematical ability (Suton Krueger, 2002). 2.2.3 Games in Mathematics Classroom Games are seen to be fun, not only motivating but ensuring full engagement, particularly through reflection and discussion, on which constructive learning depends (Booker,1996). Games are also valuable for simulating and encouraging mathematical discussion between group of children and between students and teacher (Earnest, 1986). Students may build on their prior knowledge and forms links between the game and their everyday surroundings (Bragg, 2006). Bragg further added that through the use of games, students ability to work independently of the teachers and others helps them to build confidence through achieving success in classroom. Games offer mathematics teachers a way of practicing and reinforcing arithmetic and other mathematical skills, as well as supplementing for drills and practice-problems. Games are seen as a way of presenting high level mathematics concepts in a simple and non-threatening way. Although games has been seen as a beneficial tool in mathematics classroom (Bragg,2006; Booker,2000; Gough,1999; Anily,1990), it is also important to ensure the structure of the game support learning, for learning to take place (Swansed Marshall, nd). Learning outcomes related to the games should be clearly specified to make the usefulness of games explicit to students (Bragg, 2006). In this study, the game of I have.. , who has? is used. The game is chosen because it involves the whole class and easy to administered. The rule is also very simple In this game, students have to be attentive and at the same time try to figure out the answer that match their cards. 2.2.4 Use of Video song Music is chosen as another mean of helping students to understand the topic. Music establishes a positive learning state and energizes learning activities. Songs and rhythmic chants invite the students to become active in the learning practice. Music adds an element of fun while helping accentuate the lesson orientation. Songs help stimulate the students imagination. Music helps ease tension through work that does not feel like typical classroom work. The melody, rhythm and repetition collaborate together as an effective tool in improving students memories, which in turn will establish good retention of the topic Music is a universal language which promotes reading, creativity, and comprehension skills all at the same time(Wright,2009). Don McMannis, an expert on childrens music, mentioned the positive effect of music on peoples emotions and creativity. He also agreed that music is an effective medium for learning and retaining information, in a way that it activates three different centers of the brain at the same time: language, hearing, and rhythmic motor control (Elias,2009). Music is considered as one of the avenues for learning proposed by cognitive phychologists in the theories of multisensory learning (Harris,2009). Music is viewed as a multi-sensory approach to enhance learning and retention of academic skills. The music activities used will directly carry the curriculum content that the student is to learn. For example, if the student is to add single digit numbers, the lyrics to the educational song or chant will deal directly with that target skill. Research supports the use of music as a mnemonic device for the learning and recall of new information. Music also plays a role in focusing attention and providing a motivating environment for learning. In addition, educational research confirms that we learn and retain information better when we find it interesting and meaningful. In this study, a video song from you tube, called the Mathe Mia Addition of Fractions, is used. The lyrics of the song summarize how to do addition and subtraction of fractions, from common denominators to unlike denominators and the mixed numbers. After the students have acquired the intended learning objectives, the video song will helps them to recall and retain the information learnt. 2.3 Summary It is well documented that fraction is one of the most difficult topic in Mathematics. Fraction has been taught to students in stages; from as early as when they are in Year 2. Understanding how fraction works is needed in life and other field of study. It is therefore important to establish good foundation in this topic. Lesson study is being practised worldwide and has proven a successful and effective method of enhancing teaching and learning. The ministry of Education has encouraged schools to practice lesson or learning study to help teachers and students in their teaching and learning. Teachers are also encouraged to use of different teaching strategies in enhancing students learning. The use of Manipulative in teaching and learning had been established in the education system. The effectiveness of games in promoting students learning had also been well documented. Games give an alternative way of learning in a fun, enjoyable and non-threatening way, which in turn will boost students motivation and confidence. Research had found out the positive impact on the use of music in education, although it is not a very popular means of teaching in the secondary schooling. Through the use of different strategies, students learning of the subject might yield positive result.

Language education Essay

It is not a secret that teaching has a great role in our life. In our constantly changing world we have to get knowledge from everything: from people and things surrounding us, from different technologies, from our experience. But nothing of these can take the place of a teacher, who plays a great role in life of every person. During rather long period of time a teacher was an integral part of children’s life. He does not only impart the knowledge of the world, prepares children for everyday life but also influences their souls, teaches them to be honest, to be patient, to help each other, to  respect each other. But who is a teacher? We usually think that a teacher especially if we speak of a female is a nervous persistent creature. And if we speak of a male, we are sure he is odd, absent- minded and very often not strongly built and healthy. But in the broadest sense, a teacher can be defined as someone who not only teaches or imparts knowledge, but also someone responsible for shaping the minds and hearts of all those whom they teach. Foreign language teachers have a lot of common qualities with the teachers of other subjects. Moreover such â€Å"ideal† teacher would posses personal qualities, technical abilities and professional understanding. One must admit that the future of any student depends on the qualities and dedication of a teacher of foreign language or any other subject. That is why it is necessary to be a good teacher who will create an interest in students to achieve the aims they set for themselves. But what qualities, features do make a teacher a good teacher? Speaking about it first of all we should touch teacher’s personal and professional qualities. The most important feature for both foreign language teacher and teacher of other subjects is to enjoy his profession and love children. If a teacher loves his profession and his students he is ready to devote themselves to such a hard work as being a teacher. A teacher who is full of love for his work is motivated, energized, and creative; he comes to place of work in high spirits, he is open and can share his positive emotions with the students. The next most important concern is teacher’s eternal patience. A foreign language teacher must be patient. He must never be annoyed with students because they don’t understand something. Not all children learn at the same pace and inevitably some will require special attention. However, giving up on these children is a mistake as they can usually succeed with encouragement and hard work. It is a well-known fact that a good teacher must possess leadership qualities. He must have great confidence and strong will power to obtain the best results from his students. A good sense of humour is another great tool that helps a teacher to simplify his task. I  think that a good sense of humor can create a pleasant atmosphere where everyone knows they can ask questions, make mistakes or try out new ideas. One more qualities of a good teacher which is necessary to mention is respect. It is very important to respect the students, their opinions, ideas, style of living, and attitude towards something. Having that respect for others gets you the respect back from others. Endurance, tolerance, optimism, enthusiasm, objectiveness, amiable disposition are also in the first ranks of qualities of a good teacher. I think that all these characteristics are some kind of challenge for a person because it is not so easy to combine all of them. But as the future teachers we must make every effort in order to develop them because we are the future examples for younger generation. Besides, a good foreign language teacher should possess certain professional knowledge. First of all he must know psychology of his children. It will help a teacher to have a certain way with the students, to involve them, to make the lessons more interesting and effective. Without any doubt a good foreign language teacher must be knowledgeable in his subject, because he is an example for the pupils. He must know all the peculiarities of the language, its grammar, lexical structure perfectly well. The pronunciation of a good foreign language teacher must also be on a high level. In other words he must be a professional, a master of his skills. Besides, a good teacher also must have the ability to analyze his work in order to see his mistakes, to find more effective and productive way of teaching. But on the other hand, their social position of officially respected but badly paid specialists doesn’t allow them to occupy the desirable step on the social ladder. Unfortunately very often teachers don’t have an easy access to necessary scientific literature to improve their professional skills. One more negative aspect of this profession is that they almost have no weekends, as their Monday is more likely to begin on Sunday, because some important preparations should be done. And young teachers are often not ready for the emotional impact and the amount of work  coming down on the teacher. To draw the conclusion, one can say that future teachers must remember that being a teacher is a great responsibility, because teachers are charged with children’s young souls. They must improve themselves in order to become good teachers, to acquire the qualities which will help to open children’s hearts, to become friends for them, to become examples for them to follow, to stay in their minds and hearts forever. One cannot deny that the experience the teachers get at school make a great influence on their attitudes to life and people.

Top Guide of Great Scholarship Essay Samples

Top Guide of Great Scholarship Essay Samples After all, you would like to make certain that you land that great scholarship! Especially since scholarships aren't simple to get, and judges are extremely harsh. Anyway, the scholarship will give me the opportunity to advance my interpersonal skills at a greater level. Unless you're fortunate enough to happen across an extremely obscure and unusual scholarship with no more than one or two qualified applicants, you will have to deal with some competition to be given a scholarship award. The Fundamentals of Great Scholarship Essay Samples Revealed When you have a look at the outline of the essay and see the manner in which every particular section is introduced, you get a firm grasp of the way to do a fantastic job. The very first body paragraph indicates a psychological perspective. Make an outline prior to starting. Understanding my former responsibilities with respect to theory and learn to turn new theories into practice is a process I am unable to wait to start. The Ideal Strategy for Great Scholarship Essay Samples You are able to download 1 paper every day free of charge, or share your own writings and find an unlimited accessibility to the paper base. You must look through some formatting guides and focus on the specifications your institution gave you regarding the paper format. It's natural for students not to remember all details and rules of formatting. Nevertheless, plenty of the students who succeeded wrote their papers employing a typical format. You must follow the topic. Possessing another individual reading the essay is critical. Bear in mind that the individual reading your essay wishes to give out money. The very first thing you may want to do before writing any essay for this matter is to follow along with the directions. New Step by Step Roadmap for Great Scholarship Essay Samples It's simple to point out an essay that's been written solely for the interest of it. Writing a high school essay if you've got the tips about how to do essay effectively. Even though this kind of essay should only be 250 words long, you should organize your ideas beforehand. You won't have the ability to compose an outstanding essay in case you don't devote your soul to it. Scholarship essay prompts are extremely tricky, so you need to read and re-read it multiple times to recognize key themes. Since you may see, custom written scholarship essays can be quite expensive. Everyone can write a great scholarship essay. Writing a scholarship essay may not be an easy job for many students. The Great Scholarship Essay Samples Trap In some instances, you might find it challenging to compose as a result of inadequate abilities, and thus a sample winning scholarship essays would supply the guidance you want. If you wish to succeed and know how to write a scholarship essay, it's also advisable to become familiarized with the most frequently made mistakes. Scholarship essay isn't a paper at which you can forgive yourself misspellings or formatting inaccuracy. Scholarship essays shouldn't be considered a burden since they are your gateway to land entrance into a prestigious university with plenty of benefits and perks that have the scholarship. If that's the case, then you've probably taken a look at how much is costs to really get a written essay to help you have the scholarship that you will need to the college of your selection. You have to think about the attribute of the essay that you're going to purchase. It is a good idea to look for the one which has an excellent reputation and offers high-quality papers at inexpensive rates. No matter in which you start looking for your scholarship essay samples, you always have to watch for high high quality samples to use. Most flawless college admission essay examples exhibit characteristics which could be noticed in every one of the samples. In some instances you may find it challenging to compose because of inadequate abilities and therefore a sample winning scholarship essays would provide the guidance you want. Therefore, many students and employees decide to obtain affordable essay rather than writing it themselves. When you're in high school, it's definite that you're predicted to do a few write-ups and projects which require pen and paper. Start brainstorming now, and you might discover yourself a winner! There is nobody way to compose a winning scholarship application. Show your enthusiasm, and how interested you're in truly being a component of their program.

Development of corticosteroids and their formulation for inhaled drug delivery - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 6 Words: 1855 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2019/08/08 Category Sports Essay Level High school Tags: Steroids Essay Did you like this example? Introduction Steroids are biologically active organic compounds with substantial roles and functions in the cell. Chemically, steroids are known with four rings settled in a specific configuration [1]. They are powerful and effective drugs used in the treatment of various medical conditions. There are two principal biological functions of steroids in a human cell. First, they act as important components of cell membranes, which alter membrane fluidity, and second, steroids act as signalling molecules [2]. Hundreds of steroids are found in plants, animals, and fungi. Steroid compounds are manufactured in the cell from the sterols lanosterol or cycloartenol, depending on the type of the species. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Development of corticosteroids and their formulation for inhaled drug delivery" essay for you Create order Cholesterol, estradiol, testosterone, and the anti-inflammatory drug dexamethasone [3] can be given as popular examples of steroids [4]. Corticosteroids, one of the most common steroid groups, have been used effectively in the treatment of arthritis, asthma, autoimmune diseases, skin disorders, and some types of cancer. Anabolic steroids, a different group of steroids, are rarely used in medicine. These compounds can be abused to improve performance in sports such as competitive athletics and weightlifting. Inflammation is a significant feature of many diseases with apparently unlimited medical applications of steroids. The list includes some skin conditions such as eczema, psoriasis and skin inflammation, arthritis due to pain, swelling and limited joint mobility. Oral steroids can be prescribed for autoimmune diseases such as lupus, Crohns disease, and multiple sclerosis. Besides, corticosteroids are used in the treatment of many eye diseases and some cancers. They relieve or reduce chemotherapy-related nausea and reduce some allergic reactions, such as those caused by blood transfusions. One of the main ways in which steroids work in the body is to reduce inflammation. This feature is important in conditions such as corticosteroids can be taken as pills or in the form of injections. However, there are other routes of administration as well, including inhaled corticosteroids, steroid creams, and ointments. Besides, the drug can be injected directly into an inflamed joint. Additionally, steroids are effectively used to manage asthma. By reducing inflammation and controlling the bodys immune system, corticosteroids help open the small airways. Steroids can be given with an inhaler as part of routine care to reduce symptoms for asthma and help prevent acute attacks. In an acute attack requiring a hospital visit, steroids are usually administered as intravenous injections. This essay aims to give detailed information on the development of corticosteroids with an emphasis on their formulation for inhaled drug delivery. Historical development of steroids According to the 1920 edition of The Principles and Practice of Medicine [5], the relationship of Addisons disease with the adrenals was not fully understood. However, efforts were given to extract the hormone, and in 1930 a compound could be made ready for clinical trials [6]. Soon, first treatments of Addisons patients with the cortical hormone of the suprarenal gland were reported [7]. Thus it can be said that the first clinical evidence that an extract of animal adrenocortical tissue could be used to treat human adrenal failure, was demonstrated in the 1930s. As chemical analyses of cortical extracts proceeded, it became clear that there is not one cortical hormone, but that they all are steroids [8]. By the year 1940, it was concluded that there are two categories of steroids: those that lead to a retention of sodium (and thus, fluid) and those that relieve shock and inflammation [9] The widespread clinical use of intramuscular cortisone started after 1948 first in rheumatoid arthritis and soon later in other rheumatologic conditions. Only after 1950 it was possible to have oral and intra-articular administrations of cortisone and hydrocortisone. Research continued to produce semi-synthetic cortisone with some success by the year 1952. Six synthetic steroids were introduced for systemic anti-inflammatory therapy during 1954 -1958. By 1960 almost all side-effects of chronic corticosteroid administration were described. Additionally, protocols were developed to withdraw these medications while minimizing symptoms of cortical insufficiency. Dose adjustment and use of lower doses was an agenda of the researchers those days. Companion use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs began in the late 1950s first with phenylbutazone. In the 1970s the introduction of methotrexate and other anti-metabolites further delineated the dosages and indications for corticosteroids in the management of rheumatic diseases.[6] Parallel to the medical use of steroid hormones, soon athletes discovered its use to win games. As a competitive species, the human has tried all kinds of things to be the best. Athletes have used various substances to improve performance since the beginning of civilization. Even before the invention of the steroids, in the 1860s, a group of swimmers in Amsterdam were charged with taking drugs to speed up their races. After discovering the anabolic effects of steroids, probably the first application of this kind was among soldiers. German soldiers received testosterone during World War II to increase their performance and become successful on the battlefield. Anabolic steroids are man-made versions of testosterone, a male sex hormone that helps build bigger muscles. The power of these substances in increasing the performance and boosting the muscle muscles led to widespread abuse. Abusers usually consume use extremely high doses. Some even take 100 times the dose legally prescribed by physicians [10]. In the 1940s testosterone began to be widespread in competitive sports, but the dangers of loading up on testosterone were not known in detail. In the 1952 Olympics, the Russian weightlifting and wrestling teams demonstrated a significant success, which was attributed to synthetic testosterone [11]. Scientists worked to formulate better performance-enhancing drugs after the 1950s. In the early days, there was still not enough awareness on the dangers these substances to users. By 1958, an American pharmaceutical company first developed anabolic steroids. With the widespread access and use, the nasty and hazardous side effects became obvious, but by then most athletes had access to the drugs. From the 1950s into the 1970s, both the tales and facts of performance-enhancing drug use combined to increase actual use. Those athletes, who required bulk and strength to be competitive, like bodybuilders, football players, and shot put throwers, were the first to abuse anabolic-androgenic steroids. During the 1970s, the demand for anabolic-androgenic steroids grew as athletes in speed-dependent sports discovered some of the potential benefits of using anabolic-androgenic steroids. All these practices were named as doping, and were against the sports organizations rules and against the law. In 1964, the International Olympic Committee first published a list of banned drugs and practices for athletes, but they did not ban steroids until 1975. Chemical structures of steroids and how structural changes were developed Steroids are organic compounds with a ring structure (Figure 1). The most important natural steroid compounds are bile acids, male and female sex hormones (Figure 2), and adrenal gland cortex hormones. Most of these hormones are found in the cell in trace ratios, while sterols, a kind of steroid compound, are found to be abundant [12]. Sterols are accompanied by a side chain on the main steroid roof [13]. Cholesterol is the most abundant sterol, free or bound in animal tissues. Plants do not contain sterols, but another sterol phytosterol is abundant. Other important steroids are vitamin D and cardiac glycosides. Issues with side effects that have arisen during the development Side-effects of the corticosteroids were already defined during the early invention phases of these compounds. Today, there are numerous studies describing the risks and side-effects of using steroids whether used locally [14] or systemic [15]. The known side-effects depend on the dose and how long the substance is taken. Side effects have been reported affecting many body systems, including gastrointestinal, musculoskeletal, eye, metabolic effects, immune system, pregnancy and fertility, psychological effects, and skin. Short-term use can cause weight gain, puffy face, nausea, mood swings, and trouble sleeping. The skin may get thinner. Acne, unusual hair growth, and spikes in blood sugar and blood pressure are expected. Because corticosteroids turn down the immune system, taking them makes the person prone to infections. Taking high doses of corticosteroids for a long time can cause serious side effects. Using them for more than 3 months can cause brittle bones and osteoporosis. Kids who take them for a long time might grow more slowly. Anabolic steroids have similar side effects. These steroids can cause bad acne and fluid retention. Long-term use can stop the body from making testosterone. In men, this causes smaller testicles, lower sperm counts, infertility, and breast growth. Women may have male-pattern baldness, facial hair growth, periods that change or stop, and a deeper voice. Teens that use them might stunt their bone growth and height. High doses can lead to extreme mood swings, anger, as well as aggression. Long-term anabolic use can damage the liver, kidneys, and heart. Severe fluid retention can cause heart swelling and heart failure. These drugs can also raise LDL cholesterol, which can make the person more likely to have heart attacks and strokes [16]. Aspects of formulation for inhaled drug delivery New and easier ways of drug deliveries are invented every day. This is a fact also for steroids. Inhaled steroids are popular especially for the management of conditions such as asthma and chronic obstructive lung disease (COPD). Inhaled formulations have many advantages including faster effectiveness, fewer side effects, ease of use, tolerability, and lower costs. Inhaled steroids are the mainstay treatment for controlling asthma. The use of inhaled steroids leads to better asthma control, fewer symptoms and flare-ups, and reduced need for hospitalization. Inhaled steroids come in three forms: the hydrofluoroalkane inhaler or HFA (formerly called a metered dose inhaler or MDI), dry powder inhaler (DPI), and nebulizer solutions. With aerosol devices, the typical inspiratory flow rate is around 30 litres per minute, which is a slow and steady breath in for around 4 seconds. The older pMDIs have a low deposition even with an ideal technique, of around 12% [17], although the newer devices have a softer plume and better valve technology, and some have smaller particle size increasing deposition. The Respimat device, although an aerosol inhaler, has a soft mist which increases deposition in the lung. The DPIs are dry powders and require less coordination. They do, however, require an adequate inhalation as it is an inspiratory flow that releases the medication from the carrier agent. The DPIs require a quick and deep inhalation, which may be problematic in patients with little inspiratory effort, for example, those with severely compromised lung function [18]. Inhalers contain different medicationsbronchodilators or corticosteroids, either singularly or combined. These medications have different durations of onset and action and an inhaled corticosteroid, for example, will not give a noticeable effect. If the person does not get instant relief from the inhaler, then they may take more doses, or conclude that their inhaler doesnt work [19]. Inhaled steroids have few side effects, especially at lower doses. Thrush and hoarseness (rare) may occur. Rinsing the mouth, gargling after using the inhalers, and using a spacer device with metered dose inhalers can help prevent these side effects. Thrush is easily treated with a prescription of antifungal lozenge or rinse. As a side note, it should be mentioned that many parents have concerns in giving their children steroids. The public should be informed that inhaled steroids are not the same as anabolic steroids that some athletes take to build muscle or increase performance. These steroids are anti-inflammatory drugs, which constitute the cornerstone of asthma therapy.